Introduction
Free and fair elections are the backbone of India's parliamentary democracy. Article 324
vests the "superintendence, direction and control" of elections to Parliament, State Legislatures, and the
offices of President and Vice-President in the Election Commission of India (ECI).
Election Commission of India
- Composition: A Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and such number of other Election Commissioners as the President may fix — currently 2 more (a multi-member body since 1993).
- Appointment: By the President — governed by the Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners (Appointment, Conditions of Service and Term of Office) Act, 2023, which sets up a selection committee of the PM, a Union Cabinet Minister, and the Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha.
- Removal of CEC: Same manner and grounds as a Supreme Court judge (impeachment-like process) — giving strong protection against arbitrary removal. Other ECs can be removed on the CEC's recommendation.
- All ECs have equal decision-making power; in case of a difference of opinion, the matter is decided by majority.
Universal Adult Franchise (Article 326)
- Every citizen who is 18 years or older is entitled to vote (age lowered from 21 to 18 by the 61st Amendment Act, 1988), subject to disqualifications like unsoundness of mind, crime, or corrupt practice.
Delimitation
The process of redrawing constituency boundaries based on the latest Census, carried out by an independent Delimitation Commission. A freeze on the total number of Lok Sabha/Assembly seats (based on the 1971 Census) was extended by the 84th and 87th Amendments until after the first Census conducted after 2026 — a topic of active current debate given the proposed increase in Lok Sabha strength.
Political Parties and Recognition
| Category | Key Condition (illustrative, per ECI Symbols Order) |
|---|
| National Party | Recognised in 4+ states, or wins a specified vote share/seat threshold across multiple states/Lok Sabha |
| State Party | Meets vote-share or seat thresholds within a particular state |
| Registered-Unrecognised Party | Registered with ECI under Section 29A of the RP Act, 1951, but has not met recognition criteria |
Electoral Reforms
Flowchart — Key Electoral Reform Milestones
EVMs introduced (1982 onward, full rollout by 2004)
→
VVPAT introduced (paper trail verification)
→
NOTA option (2013, per SC direction)
- Model Code of Conduct (MCC): A set of ECI guidelines (not law) governing the conduct of parties/candidates once elections are announced.
- NOTA ("None of the Above"): Introduced following the SC's directive in PUCL v. Union of India (2013); a NOTA majority does not currently invalidate an election in general elections.
- State funding of elections and electoral bonds have been part of ongoing electoral finance reform debates; the Electoral Bond Scheme was struck down by the Supreme Court in February 2024 as violative of the right to information.
✅ UPSC Focus: Article 324 vs 325 (no discrimination in electoral rolls) vs 326 (universal franchise) · CEC removal process (same as SC judge) · 2023 ECI Appointment Act composition · Delimitation freeze extension · Electoral Bonds judgment 2024.