Quantitative Aptitude
Arithmetic, Algebra, DI & Advanced Math1
Number System
βΌ
Key Concepts
- Natural Numbers: 1, 2, 3, β¦ | Whole Numbers: 0, 1, 2, 3, β¦
- Integers: β¦β2, β1, 0, 1, 2, β¦ | Rational: p/q form (qβ 0)
- Prime Numbers: Divisible only by 1 and itself (2, 3, 5, 7, 11, β¦)
- HCF & LCM: HCF Γ LCM = Product of two numbers
- Divisibility Rules: 2 (even), 3 (digit sumΓ·3), 9 (digit sumΓ·9), 11 (alternating sum)
π Every prime > 3 is of the form 6kΒ±1. The only even prime is 2.
2
Simplification & Approximation
βΌ
BODMAS Rule
- Brackets β Order (powers/roots) β Division β Multiplication β Addition β Subtraction
- For approximation: round values to nearest convenient number before solving
Useful Fraction-to-Decimal Conversions
| Fraction | Decimal | % |
|---|---|---|
| 1/4 | 0.25 | 25% |
| 1/3 | 0.333 | 33.33% |
| 1/8 | 0.125 | 12.5% |
| 3/4 | 0.75 | 75% |
π‘ In approximation questions, never approximate beyond Β±2% of actual value
3
Percentage
βΌ
Core Formulas
- Percentage = (Value / Total) Γ 100
- % Change = [(New β Old) / Old] Γ 100
- Successive % change: A% then B% β Net = A + B + (AB/100)
β
If price β by r%, consumption must β by [r/(100+r)]Γ100 to keep expenditure same
4
Profit & Loss
βΌ
Key Formulas
- Profit % = (Profit / CP) Γ 100 | Loss % = (Loss / CP) Γ 100
- SP = CP Γ (100 + Profit%) / 100 | CP = SP Γ 100 / (100 + Profit%)
- Dishonest dealer: Profit% = (Error / True weight β Error) Γ 100
- Marked Price: Discount % = (MP β SP) / MP Γ 100
π‘ Two articles sold at same SP: one at X% profit, other at X% loss β always a loss of (XΒ²/100)%
5
Simple & Compound Interest
βΌ
Formulas
- SI = P Γ R Γ T / 100
- CI = P Γ [(1 + R/100)βΏ β 1]
- CI β SI (2 yrs) = P Γ (R/100)Β²
- CI β SI (3 yrs) = P Γ (R/100)Β² Γ (R/100 + 3)
π Money doubles in SI: T = 100/R years. Doubles in CI: ~70/R years (Rule of 72)
6
Ratio & Proportion
βΌ
Key Rules
- If a:b = c:d then ad = bc (cross-multiplication)
- Componendo: (a+b)/(aβb) = (c+d)/(cβd)
- Duplicate ratio of a:b = aΒ²:bΒ²
- Sub-duplicate ratio of a:b = βa:βb
β
Mean Proportional of a and b = β(ab) | Third Proportional of a,b = bΒ²/a
7
Partnership
βΌ
Profit Sharing Rule
- Simple Partnership: Profit β Capital invested (time equal)
- Compound Partnership: Profit β Capital Γ Time
- If A invests βΉPβ for tβ months and B invests βΉPβ for tβ months β ratio = Pβtβ : Pβtβ
π‘ Working partner may get a salary/commission before profit is split
8
Average
βΌ
Formulas
- Average = Sum of all observations / Number of observations
- Average of first n natural numbers = (n+1)/2
- Average of first n even numbers = n+1 | first n odd numbers = n
- If average of a group increases/decreases by x when a new member joins β use: new sum = new count Γ new avg
9
Mixture & Alligation
βΌ
Alligation Rule
- Ratio of quantities = (Dearer price β Mean price) : (Mean price β Cheaper price)
- Used to find: mixing two solutions, average speed, average cost etc.
π Withdrawal & replacement: Final conc. = C Γ (1 β x/V)βΏ where x = amount replaced each time, V = total volume, n = times
10
Time & Work
βΌ
Key Concepts
- If A completes work in n days β A's 1-day work = 1/n
- A and B together: 1/A + 1/B = 1/T β T = AB/(A+B)
- Efficiency method: Assume total work = LCM of days; calculate units/day for each person
β
MβDβHβ/Wβ = MβDβHβ/Wβ (work equivalence formula for different persons, days, hours)
11
Pipes & Cisterns
βΌ
Core Rules
- Pipe filling tank in x hrs β rate = 1/x per hour (positive)
- Pipe emptying tank in y hrs β rate = β1/y per hour (negative)
- Net rate when both open = 1/x β 1/y; time = xy/(yβx)
π‘ If leak empties a full tank in L hours and inlet fills in F hours β time to fill with leak = FL/(LβF)
12
Time, Speed & Distance
βΌ
Formulas
- Speed = Distance / Time | 1 km/h = 5/18 m/s | 1 m/s = 18/5 km/h
- Average Speed (same distance) = 2xy/(x+y) where x, y are two speeds
- Relative Speed: Same direction = |SββSβ| | Opposite direction = Sβ+Sβ
π Train crossing a pole: Time = Length/Speed. Train crossing bridge: Time = (Train + Bridge length)/Speed
13
Boats & Streams
βΌ
Key Terms
- Downstream speed = Boat speed + Stream speed (u+v)
- Upstream speed = Boat speed β Stream speed (uβv)
- Boat speed = (Downstream + Upstream) / 2
- Stream speed = (Downstream β Upstream) / 2
14
Linear & Quadratic Equations
βΌ
Quadratic β axΒ² + bx + c = 0
- Roots: x = [βb Β± β(bΒ²β4ac)] / 2a
- Sum of roots = βb/a | Product of roots = c/a
- Discriminant D = bΒ²β4ac: D>0 (real distinct), D=0 (equal), D<0 (imaginary)
Inequalities
- Multiplying/dividing by negative flips the inequality sign
- For quadratic inequality, find roots then test intervals
15
Data Interpretation β Table & Bar Graph
βΌ
Strategy
- Read all column/row headings before solving any question
- Identify the unit (βΉ crore, thousands, %) upfront
- For Bar Graphs: compare bar heights visually before calculating
- Missing DI: find the missing value using given total or ratio
π Types: Table DI, Bar Graph, Line Graph, Pie Chart, Caselet DI, Missing DI β each requires 5β6 questions in mains exam
16
Data Interpretation β Pie Chart & Line Graph
βΌ
Pie Chart
- Total = 360Β° or 100%
- Value of a sector = (Angle/360) Γ Total or (% / 100) Γ Total
Caselet DI
- Data given in paragraph form β extract and tabulate before solving
- Watch for keywords: "remaining", "rest", "twice as many as", "ratio of"
17
Permutation & Combination
βΌ
Formulas
- nPr = n! / (nβr)! | nCr = n! / [r!(nβr)!]
- Permutation = arrangement (order matters) | Combination = selection (order does not matter)
- Circular arrangement of n objects = (nβ1)!
β
nCr = nC(n-r) | nC0 = nCn = 1 | nC1 = n
18
Probability
βΌ
Key Formulas
- P(E) = Favourable outcomes / Total outcomes; 0 β€ P(E) β€ 1
- P(AβͺB) = P(A) + P(B) β P(Aβ©B)
- P(A') = 1 β P(A)
- For independent events: P(Aβ©B) = P(A) Γ P(B)
19
Mensuration (2D & 3D)
βΌ
2D Shapes
| Shape | Area | Perimeter |
|---|---|---|
| Circle | ΟrΒ² | 2Οr |
| Triangle | Β½ Γ base Γ height | a+b+c |
| Rectangle | l Γ b | 2(l+b) |
| Trapezium | Β½(a+b)Γh | a+b+c+d |
3D Shapes
| Shape | Volume | CSA |
|---|---|---|
| Cylinder | ΟrΒ²h | 2Οrh |
| Cone | β ΟrΒ²h | Οrl |
| Sphere | 4/3ΟrΒ³ | 4ΟrΒ² |
20
Data Sufficiency
βΌ
Approach
- Do NOT solve the problem completely β just check if data is sufficient
- Check Statement I alone β Statement II alone β Both together
- If both give unique answer β "Either alone is sufficient"
- If neither gives unique answer β "Data insufficient"
π‘ Common traps: assuming values not stated, confusing "cannot determine" with "data insufficient"
Reasoning Ability
Puzzles, Logical & Analytical Reasoning1
Linear & Circular Seating Arrangement
βΌ
Types
- Linear (single row): All face North OR all face South
- Linear (two rows): Two groups facing each other
- Circular: All face center OR all face outward OR mixed
Strategy
- Draw arrangement immediately; start with the person having the most clues
- Use definite clues before conditional ones
- In circular (facing center): "A right of B" = A is clockwise from B
πͺ In linear facing North: your left = West, your right = East
2
Square / Rectangular Arrangement
βΌ
Key Points
- Corner persons have neighbors on two sides only
- Side (non-corner) persons face the center differently from corner ones
- Always label corners and sides before placing persons
3
Floor-based & Box-based Puzzles
βΌ
Floor Puzzle
- Fix topmost and bottommost floors first using definite clues
- Track "above" / "below" / "immediately above/below" separately
Box Puzzle
- Usually 6β8 boxes stacked; similar strategy to floors
- Assign row numbers (1 = top or bottom β check problem statement)
4
Scheduling Puzzle
βΌ
Approach
- Create a grid: Persons Γ Days/Months/Slots
- Fix definite assignments first, then eliminate possibilities
- Watch for "not on the same day" and "consecutive" clues
5
Syllogism
βΌ
Basic Rules (Venn Diagram Method)
- All A are B + All B are C β All A are C β
- All A are B + Some B are C β Some A are C β (not definite)
- No A are B + All B are C β No A are C β
- Some A are B + Some B are C β No definite conclusion β
New Pattern
- "Definitely" = must be true in ALL Venn diagram cases
- "Possibility" = true in at least ONE Venn diagram case
β
Either-or: both conclusions individually wrong but together exhaustive β "Either I or II follows"
6
Coding-Decoding
βΌ
Types
- Letter coding: Each letter shifted by fixed number (AβD means +3)
- Number coding: Words assigned number values; find the pattern
- New pattern: Random symbol coding β match given pairs to decode new word
π Always write the alphabet with position numbers (A=1, B=2 β¦ Z=26) for quick reference
7
Blood Relations
βΌ
Strategy
- Draw a family tree immediately β top = older generation
- Use M (Male) / F (Female) labels for each person
- Identify the reference person in every question
π‘ "Son of my father's only daughter" = my own son
8
Direction Sense
βΌ
Key Tips
- Always draw a map: fix starting point, mark North up
- After turning right: NβEβSβWβN (clockwise)
- After turning left: NβWβSβEβN (anticlockwise)
- Final distance = use Pythagoras theorem for displacement
9
Order & Ranking + Inequality
βΌ
Order & Ranking
- Position from left + Position from right = Total + 1
- If two persons swap positions, one position changes and the other stays β re-read carefully
Coded Inequality
- Decode the symbols first (e.g., $ means β₯), then apply normal inequality rules
- Watch for "either conclusion I or II": happens when combined they cover all cases
10
Input-Output
βΌ
Approach
- Identify the pattern from Step 0 β Step 1 β Step 2
- Common patterns: words/numbers arranged in ascending/descending order alternately, word-number shuffle
- Find the rule, then apply it to reach the target step
11
Data Sufficiency (Reasoning)
βΌ
Options Framework
- A: Statement I alone sufficient
- B: Statement II alone sufficient
- C: Both together sufficient
- D: Either alone sufficient
- E: Even together not sufficient
12
Decision Making
βΌ
Tips
- Read the given policy/rule carefully before evaluating the case
- Apply conditions strictly β do not assume information not given
- If borderline case β use the "refer to higher authority" option
13
Alphanumeric Series & Alphabet Test
βΌ
Key Concepts
- Series may include letters, numbers and symbols β find repeating pattern
- Count positions: EJOTY rule β E=5, J=10, O=15, T=20, Y=25
- Opposite letters: AβZ, BβY, CβX β¦ (sum of positions = 27)
14
Odd One Out
βΌ
Categories
- Based on: meaning, number of letters, vowel/consonant pattern, category (animals, capitals etc.)
- Check multiple angles β the obvious grouping may be a distractor
English Language
Grammar, Vocabulary, Reading & Verbal Ability1
Parts of Speech & Tenses
βΌ
Parts of Speech (8 Types)
- Noun, Pronoun, Verb, Adjective, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, Interjection
Tenses Quick Reference
| Tense | Form |
|---|---|
| Simple Present | V1 / V1+s |
| Present Continuous | is/am/are + V-ing |
| Present Perfect | has/have + V3 |
| Simple Past | V2 |
| Past Perfect | had + V3 |
2
Subject-Verb Agreement
βΌ
Key Rules
- Singular subject β singular verb (He runs)
- "Eitherβ¦or / Neitherβ¦nor": verb agrees with the nearer subject
- Collective nouns (team, committee) take singular verb when acting as one unit
- "Each", "every", "everyone" β always singular
3
Articles & Prepositions
βΌ
Articles
- A β before consonant sound | An β before vowel sound
- The β specific/known noun; superlatives; unique things (the Sun)
- No article: proper nouns (generally), languages, meals, sports
Common Prepositions
- at (point of time/place) | in (inside/month/year) | on (surface/day/date)
- since (point of time) | for (duration) | by (not later than)
4
Active-Passive Voice & Direct-Indirect Speech
βΌ
Active to Passive
- Object of active β Subject of passive
- Verb: is/am/are/was/were/be/been/being + V3
- Subject of active β "by + object" (if mentioned)
Direct to Indirect
- Remove quotation marks; use reporting verb + that/if/wh-word
- Tense backshift: Present β Past, Past β Past Perfect
- Pronouns change based on subject/object of reporting clause
5
Synonyms, Antonyms & Word Usage
βΌ
Tips
- Learn roots: "bene" (good), "mal" (bad), "dict" (say), "rupt" (break)
- Context clues: use surrounding sentence to infer meaning
- Eliminate: rule out options that are clearly opposite or unrelated
π Build vocabulary from editorial sections of newspapers β target 10 new words daily
6
Idioms, Phrases & One Word Substitution
βΌ
Common Idioms
- Beat around the bush β avoid the main topic
- Break the ice β initiate conversation
- Cost an arm and a leg β very expensive
- Bite the bullet β endure pain/difficulty
One Word Substitution
- Omnivore β eats both plants and animals
- Atheist β one who does not believe in God
- Insolvent β unable to pay debts
- Nemesis β one who inflicts just punishment
7
Reading Comprehension
βΌ
Strategy
- Read questions first, then skim passage for relevant paragraphs
- Main idea questions β check first and last paragraphs
- Inference questions β answer must be implied, not stated directly
- Tone/attitude questions β look for positive/negative/neutral language
β
Never bring outside knowledge β answer only from the passage
8
Cloze Test
βΌ
Approach
- Read the entire passage once for overall context before filling blanks
- Check grammatical fit: noun/verb/adjective/adverb required?
- Eliminate options that break the logical flow of the paragraph
9
Error Detection & Sentence Improvement
βΌ
Common Error Areas
- Subject-verb agreement
- Wrong tense usage
- Misuse of articles and prepositions
- Dangling modifiers and parallelism errors
- Double negatives
π‘ Read each part aloud mentally β your ear often catches errors faster than your eye
10
Para Jumbles
βΌ
Strategy
- Find the opening sentence: introduces topic, no pronoun reference back, no connective word
- Find the closing sentence: concluding word (hence, thus, therefore), no further follow-up
- Look for pronounβnoun pairs and connector words (however, moreover, therefore)
- Use elimination to narrow down answer choices
11
Fill in the Blanks
βΌ
Approach
- Single blank: check grammar + meaning fit
- Double blank: eliminate options where either word does not fit
- Connector words (although, because, however) signal contrast or cause
General Awareness (Banking + Current Affairs)
Banking Awareness, Static GK & Current Affairs1
History of Banking in India
βΌ
Key Milestones
- Bank of Hindustan (1770) β first bank in India
- Imperial Bank of India (1921) β became SBI in 1955
- RBI established: 1 April 1935; Nationalised: 1949
- Bank Nationalisation: 14 banks in 1969, 6 more in 1980
- Liberalisation (1991): Private banks allowed β HDFC, ICICI, Axis
2
Reserve Bank of India (RBI) Functions
βΌ
Core Functions
- Monetary authority β controls money supply and inflation
- Banker to the Government β manages public debt, account of Centre & States
- Banker's bank β lender of last resort to scheduled banks
- Currency issuer β issues all notes except βΉ1 coin & note (Ministry of Finance)
- Foreign exchange management β custodian of forex reserves
3
Monetary Policy
βΌ
Key Monetary Policy Tools
| Tool | Definition | Effect when β |
|---|---|---|
| Repo Rate | Rate RBI lends to banks | Credit costlier β less borrowing |
| Reverse Repo | Rate banks park money with RBI | Banks park more β less credit |
| CRR | % deposits kept with RBI (cash) | Less money with banks β credit contracts |
| SLR | % deposits in govt securities | Banks have less to lend |
| Bank Rate | Long-term lending rate by RBI | Long-term credit expensive |
π Repo Rate β β Borrowing cost β β Credit supply β β Inflation controlled
4
Types of Banks
βΌ
- Public Sector Banks: SBI, PNB, Bank of Baroda (Govt owns majority)
- Private Sector Banks: HDFC, ICICI, Axis, Kotak
- Foreign Banks: Citibank, HSBC, Deutsche Bank
- Regional Rural Banks (RRBs): Serve rural areas; owned by Centre + State + Sponsor bank
- Small Finance Banks: Serve unserved/underserved segments
- Payment Banks: Accept deposits up to βΉ2 lakh; cannot issue loans
5
Financial Institutions
βΌ
- NABARD: Agriculture & rural development | HQ: Mumbai
- SIDBI: Small Industries Development Bank | HQ: Lucknow
- NHB: National Housing Bank | HQ: New Delhi
- EXIM Bank: Export-Import financing | HQ: Mumbai
- SEBI: Securities market regulator | HQ: Mumbai
- IRDAI: Insurance regulator | HQ: Hyderabad
- PFRDA: Pension fund regulator | HQ: New Delhi
6
Banking Terms (NPA, CRR, SLR, Repo Rate)
βΌ
| Term | Full Form / Meaning |
|---|---|
| NPA | Non-Performing Asset β loan unpaid for 90+ days |
| NBFC | Non-Banking Financial Company (e.g., LIC, Bajaj Finance) |
| KYC | Know Your Customer β mandatory identity verification |
| NEFT | National Electronic Funds Transfer β settled in batches |
| RTGS | Real Time Gross Settlement β min βΉ2 lakh, real-time |
| IMPS | Immediate Payment Service β 24Γ7 including holidays |
| UPI | Unified Payments Interface β instant mobile payment |
| SWIFT | Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication |
| CIBIL | Credit score (300β900); 750+ is good |
| FDI | Foreign Direct Investment β equity stake in Indian company |
7
Digital Banking
βΌ
- UPI: Unified Payments Interface β instant, 24Γ7, mobile-based
- BHIM: Bharat Interface for Money β NPCI app for UPI
- NACH: National Automated Clearing House β bulk payments (salaries, pensions)
- e-RUPI: Digital voucher by RBI; person & purpose-specific
- CBDC: Central Bank Digital Currency β digital rupee by RBI
π‘ RTGS min = βΉ2 lakh | NEFT = no minimum | IMPS = 24Γ7 | UPI = instant, free
8
Countries, Capitals & Currencies
βΌ
| Country | Capital | Currency |
|---|---|---|
| USA | Washington D.C. | US Dollar |
| UK | London | Pound Sterling |
| Japan | Tokyo | Yen |
| China | Beijing | Renminbi (Yuan) |
| Australia | Canberra | Australian Dollar |
| Brazil | BrasΓlia | Real |
9
Important Days & Books & Authors
βΌ
Important Days
- Jan 30 β Martyrs Day | Mar 8 β International Women's Day
- Apr 22 β Earth Day | Jun 5 β World Environment Day
- Oct 2 β Gandhi Jayanti | Nov 14 β Children's Day
Books & Authors (Banking Context)
- India's Turn β Manish Sabharwal
- Fault Lines β Raghuram Rajan
- An Era of Darkness β Shashi Tharoor
10
National Parks, Wildlife & HQs of Organizations
βΌ
National Parks
- Jim Corbett (Uttarakhand) β first national park | Tiger Reserve
- Kaziranga (Assam) β one-horned rhinoceros
- Sundarbans (West Bengal) β largest mangrove; Bengal Tiger
HQs of Key Organizations
- IMF & World Bank β Washington D.C. | WTO β Geneva | ADB β Manila
- AIIB β Beijing | NDB (BRICS Bank) β Shanghai
11
National & International Current Affairs
βΌ
What to Track
- Government schemes & their ministries
- Union Budget highlights
- Economic Survey key data
- India's bilateral agreements & summits
- New appointments (RBI Governor, Finance Minister, Cabinet changes)
π Read one quality newspaper or follow a monthly current affairs digest β revise last 6 months before exam
12
Economy & Finance
βΌ
- GDP: Gross Domestic Product β total value of goods & services produced
- GNP: GDP + Net factor income from abroad
- Inflation: CPI (Consumer Price Index) β measured monthly by MoSPI
- WPI: Wholesale Price Index β measures wholesale level price change
- Fiscal Deficit: Excess of total expenditure over total receipts (excl. borrowings)
13
Awards & Honours
βΌ
- Bharat Ratna β Highest civilian honour | Padma Awards β Padma Vibhushan, Bhushan, Shri
- Nobel Prize: Peace β Oslo; others β Stockholm; announced October each year
- Booker Prize β English fiction | Man Booker International β translated fiction
- Dadasaheb Phalke β Highest film honour in India
14
Sports News
βΌ
What to Track
- ICC Cricket tournament results & player awards
- Olympic & Commonwealth Games β Indian medal winners
- Grand Slam winners (Tennis) | FIFA World Cup host & winner
- Arjuna, Dronacharya, Khel Ratna award winners
15
Appointments & Resignations
βΌ
What to Track
- RBI Governor, Deputy Governors
- SEBI, IRDAI, PFRDA Chairpersons
- CEOs of major PSU banks (SBI, PNB, Canara)
- New CMs, Governors of States
- Heads of International Organizations (IMF MD, WB President, UN SG)
16
Government Schemes
βΌ
| Scheme | Focus | Ministry |
|---|---|---|
| PM Jan Dhan Yojana | Financial inclusion β zero balance accounts | Finance |
| PMJJBY | Life insurance βΉ2L cover | Finance |
| PMSBY | Accidental insurance βΉ2L cover | Finance |
| Atal Pension Yojana | Pension for unorganized sector | Finance/PFRDA |
| Mudra Yojana | Loans to micro enterprises | Finance |
| Startup India | Promote entrepreneurship | Commerce |
Computer Knowledge
Basics, Hardware, Networking & Applications1
Fundamentals of Computers
βΌ
Definition & Characteristics
- Computer: Electronic device that accepts data, processes it and gives output
- Key characteristics: Speed, Accuracy, Automation, Versatility, Storage, Diligence
- IPO Cycle: Input β Process β Output
Number Systems
| System | Base | Digits |
|---|---|---|
| Binary | 2 | 0, 1 |
| Octal | 8 | 0β7 |
| Decimal | 10 | 0β9 |
| Hexadecimal | 16 | 0β9, AβF |
2
Generations of Computers & Types
βΌ
| Generation | Technology | Era |
|---|---|---|
| 1st | Vacuum Tubes | 1940sβ50s |
| 2nd | Transistors | 1950sβ60s |
| 3rd | Integrated Circuits (ICs) | 1960sβ70s |
| 4th | Microprocessors (VLSI) | 1970sβpresent |
| 5th | Artificial Intelligence | Present & beyond |
Types of Computers
- Supercomputer (most powerful) | Mainframe | Minicomputer | Microcomputer (PC)
3
Input & Output Devices
βΌ
Input Devices
- Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner, Microphone, Webcam, Touchscreen, Joystick, Barcode Reader, OMR, OCR
Output Devices
- Monitor, Printer, Speaker, Projector, Plotter
π Touchscreen is BOTH input and output (I/O device)
4
Memory (RAM, ROM, Cache)
βΌ
| Type | Full Form | Nature |
|---|---|---|
| RAM | Random Access Memory | Volatile (lost on power off) |
| ROM | Read Only Memory | Non-volatile; stores BIOS |
| Cache | β | Fastest; between CPU and RAM |
| HDD | Hard Disk Drive | Secondary storage; non-volatile |
| SSD | Solid State Drive | Faster than HDD; non-volatile |
β
Memory hierarchy (fastest to slowest): Registers β Cache β RAM β SSD/HDD β Cloud
5
Operating System
βΌ
Functions
- Interface between user and hardware
- Process management, Memory management, File management, Device management
Types
- Single-user (Windows), Multi-user (Linux/Unix), Real-time OS (RTOS), Batch OS, Distributed OS
π‘ Popular OS: Windows, macOS, Linux, Android (mobile), iOS
6
Internet Basics
βΌ
Key Terms
- WWW: World Wide Web β system of interlinked web pages
- HTTP/HTTPS: Protocol for web communication; S = Secure (SSL/TLS)
- IP Address: Unique numerical label for each device (IPv4 = 32-bit, IPv6 = 128-bit)
- URL: Uniform Resource Locator β web address
- Browser: Chrome, Firefox, Edge, Safari
7
Networking Concepts
βΌ
| Term | Full Form / Meaning |
|---|---|
| LAN | Local Area Network β small area (office, building) |
| WAN | Wide Area Network β large geographic area; Internet is largest WAN |
| MAN | Metropolitan Area Network β city-level |
| Router | Connects different networks; assigns IP addresses |
| Switch | Connects devices within same network |
| Modem | Modulator-Demodulator β converts digital β analog |
| DNS | Domain Name System β maps domain name to IP address |
8
Cyber Security
βΌ
Common Threats
- Virus: Self-replicating malicious program
- Worm: Spreads across networks without user action
- Trojan: Disguises as legitimate software
- Phishing: Fraudulent attempt to steal credentials via fake email/site
- Ransomware: Encrypts data; demands ransom
- Firewall: Security system that monitors/controls network traffic
π‘ CERT-In (Computer Emergency Response Team β India) handles cyber incidents in India
9
MS Word
βΌ
Key Shortcuts
| Shortcut | Action |
|---|---|
| Ctrl+S | Save |
| Ctrl+Z / Ctrl+Y | Undo / Redo |
| Ctrl+B / I / U | Bold / Italic / Underline |
| Ctrl+F | Find |
| Ctrl+H | Find & Replace |
| Ctrl+P |
π Default file extension: .docx | Mail merge used to send bulk personalized letters
10
MS Excel
βΌ
Key Functions
- =SUM(A1:A10) | =AVERAGE(B1:B5) | =MAX() | =MIN() | =COUNT()
- =IF(condition, value_if_true, value_if_false)
- =VLOOKUP(lookup_value, table_array, col_index, [range_lookup])
Key Facts
- Max rows: 1,048,576 | Max columns: 16,384 (XFD)
- Default extension: .xlsx | Charts: Bar, Pie, Line, Column
11
MS PowerPoint & Shortcuts
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PowerPoint Basics
- Default extension: .pptx | Presentation = collection of slides
- Views: Normal, Slide Sorter, Notes Page, Reading View, Slide Show
- F5 = Start slide show | Shift+F5 = Start from current slide
Common Shortcuts (All MS Office)
- Ctrl+C / V / X β Copy / Paste / Cut
- Ctrl+A β Select All | Ctrl+N β New | Ctrl+O β Open
- Alt+F4 β Close application | F12 β Save As
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Database Basics
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Key Terms
- DBMS: Database Management System β software to manage databases (MySQL, Oracle)
- Table: Data organized in rows (records) and columns (fields)
- Primary Key: Unique identifier for each record
- Foreign Key: Links two tables together
- SQL: Structured Query Language β SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE
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Cloud Computing
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Service Models
- IaaS β Infrastructure as a Service (e.g., AWS EC2)
- PaaS β Platform as a Service (e.g., Google App Engine)
- SaaS β Software as a Service (e.g., Gmail, Salesforce)
Deployment Models
- Public Cloud (shared) | Private Cloud (dedicated) | Hybrid Cloud (mixed)
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Key cloud providers: AWS (Amazon), Azure (Microsoft), GCP (Google)
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Artificial Intelligence (Basics)
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Key Concepts
- AI: Machines simulating human intelligence β reasoning, learning, problem-solving
- Machine Learning (ML): AI subset where systems learn from data
- Deep Learning: ML subset using neural networks with many layers
- NLP: Natural Language Processing β AI understanding human language (e.g., chatbots)
- Robotics: AI applied to physical machines
π Turing Test: determines if a machine can exhibit intelligent behavior indistinguishable from a human